The Black Press Challenges Nazism.

At a time when many others refused to see the danger for what it truly was.

Also known as the African American Press, the Black Press has played a monumental role in not only Black History but American History and beyond. Because there is a moment in the Black Press’s history that doesn’t get the amount of coverage that it deserves. Its coverage of Hitler and Nazism.

However before going over this unique chapter of American journalism, let’s go over the Black Press’s backstory to gain a deeper understanding of who they were and their place in the history of American journalism.

The Black Press origins lie in the efforts of two individuals. The Presbyterian minister and a founding member of the American Anti-Slavery Society(https://www.nyhistory.org/web/africanfreeschool/bios/samuel-cornish.html ),Rev. Samuel Cornish(1795-1858)and abolitionist publisher and former governor of Maryland,Liberia(https://www.bowdoin.edu/africana-studies/history/russwurm-center.html ),John B. Russwurm(1799-1851). As they met in the New York City home of Bostin Crummell in 1827, with other prominent free African Americans to discuss a means of developing a media outlet to communicate with their fellow Black Americans on matters that concern their community. From local to national matters, especially slavery and counteracting the negative portrayals of Black Americans seen in the newspapers of the day. Their efforts lead to the creation of the first Black Newspaper, the Freedom’s Journal(https://nnpa.org/black-press-history/).

From then on throughout the 19th and 20th centuries more Black newspapers and publications came into being. Such as Frederick Douglass’s North Star, Philip Alexander Bell’s Colored American, Harry Clay Smith’s The Cleveland Gazette, Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin’s The Woman’s Era, The Chicago Defender of Robert Abbott, Robert Lee Vann’s Pittsburgh Courier and many more. Who all went on to ensure that the Black community was as best informed concerning events and policies occurring around them and the world.

Which brings us to the 20th century, as the 1930s & 40s would be the rise of a great threat to humanity. The rise of Nazism, its allies and World War II. As these events would be a great concern to the Black community at the time.

The reasoning being that these concerns of the Black American press, was due to Nazism’s presence within America and its ties to the racial divide the Black community(as well as many other communities) within the United States had to weather on consistent basis.

Examples of such concerns were Hitler and his prominent associates & supporters rhetoric that was akin to what many Black Americans, especially those living in the South, had encountered from pro-segregationists politicians to racial pseudoscientists.

One being the works of American lawyer, Anthropologist, zoologist, and eugenicist, Madison Grant(1865-1937). The most notable and influential being his book “The Passing of the Great Race: or, the Racial Basis of European History” published in 1916, that advocated the pseudoscience racial theory of Nordicism, that the “Nordic Race(primarily White Northern Europeans or those adjacent)” were inherently superior to other “Human Races(https://www.nps.gov/people/madison-grant.htm)” Alongside Grant was American Historian, Journalist, & political scientist, and white supremacist, Lothrop Stoddard(1883-1950). Author of the 1920 book “The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy”, which like Grant, argued the superiority of the “Nordic Race” while preaching the fears and threats of other races against their supremacy, while arguing against interracial relations, as that would be their downfall(https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/08/26/when-w-e-b-du-bois-made-a-laughingstock-of-a-white-supremacist).

Grant and Stoddard’s works were well received in prominent circles at the time when the pseudoscience of Scientific Racism and Eugenics were widely embraced. Especially by prominent figures giving men like them praise for their work and efforts. Such as President Calvin Coolidge(1872-1933),as Vice President echoed the interracial relations sentiment, by writing “"Biological laws tell us that certain divergent people will not mix or blend. The Nordics propagate themselves successfully. With other races, the outcome shows deterioration on both sides(https://reader.library.cornell.edu/docviewer/digital?id=hearth6417403_1366_002#page/15/mode/1up)” As Stoddard ‘s book was referenced by President Warren Harding(1865-1923) in a speech in Alabama in October 1921, while praising the promoters of “the Lost Cause” view of the pre Civil War South(https://www.nytimes.com/1921/10/27/archives/harding-says-negro-must-have-equality-in-political-life-does-not.html). While Madison Grant and fellow eugenicist Harry Laughlin, were apart of the subcommittee for the anti-Asian and Eastern European immigration legislation known as Immigration Act of 1924 or the Johnston Reed Act(https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act).

Their work and activities would also be praised by Hitler and his Nazis followers. As Alfred Rosenberg, the Nazi Party's chief racial theorist, had appropriated the racial term Untermensch( underman/sub-man or subhuman)from the German version of Stoddard's 1922 book “The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under-man”. Which went by the German title, “Der Kulturumsturz: Die Drohung des Untermenschen(Losurdo, Domenico (2004). "Toward a Critique of the Category of Totalitarianism" (PDF, 0.2 MB). Historical Materialism. 12 (2). Translated by Marella & Jon Morris. Brill: 25–55, here p. 50)”. As Stoddard would also have interactions with high ranking Nazi officials in 1940, as a journalist(Stefan Kühl (2001). The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism. Oxford University Press US. p. 61). Meanwhile Madison Grant’s work, “The Passing of the Great Race: or, the Racial Basis of European History”, would be referred to by Adolf Hitler himself as his “bible(Stefan Kühl. Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism(Oxford University Press, 2002) p. 85)”

Along with the influences by these publications, came the utilizing of the familiar propaganda of the Klu Klux Klan(Cook,Erza A. 1922. Ku Klux Klan Secrets Exposed: Attitude Towards Jews, Catholics, Foreigners, and Masons: Fraudulent Methods Used, Atrocities Committed in Name of Order. Chicago, p.37), and reviewing Jim Crow South policies(https://www.facingsouth.org/2021/04/university-arkansass-hidden-history-helping-nazis). The Nazis would initiate social propaganda campaigns(Clarence Lusane (2003): Hitler's black victims: the historical experiences of Afro-Germans, European Blacks, Africans, and African Americans in the Nazi era. Routledge, p. 200), and legal actions against several groups of people. Most notably the Nuremberg Laws, with the most notable “race enemies” the Nazis had listed being Jews, Romani and Black people(https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/nuremberg-laws).

Meanwhile these activities didn’t escape the notice of members of the Black community. As did the rise of the German American Bund, a pro Nazi American party(https://vault.fbi.gov/german-american-bund), as related organizations and high profile members of American society had begun to mirrored each other in tone and beliefs.

Such as with the German American Bund’s nearly 25,000 members, in nearly every state having to proudly to declare that they had no Jewish &/or African American ancestors in order to apply for membership(https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/german-american-bund). Along with oaths of loyalty to Adolf Hitler, and the mandatory reading his infamous memoir, Mein Kampf. A work that attack Jews, Blacks and others, he had considered inferior and needed to be removed &/or subjugated(that led to some of the most vile crimes against humanity that deserves it’s own article).

Just from these few examples alone, many members of the Black community were alarmed, as it became apparent that many prominent media outlets of the time weren’t acknowledging such dangerous rhetoric and incidents, nor even being fully critical of the Nazis in what was needed in properly informing the public.

Such examples included the pushing of flattering images of Hitler by the August 20, 1939 issue of the New York Times Magazine. Which was published 12 days before Germany’s invasion of Poland kicked off World War II, 9 months after the violent anti-Jewish pogroms of Kristallnacht, and 6 years after the first Nazi concentration camp opened at Dachau. As the article complimented Hitler’s Obersalzberg estate and his study. While in 1938 the British magazine: “Homes and Gardens” would publish a likewise 3 paged article(https://www.buffalo.edu/news/releases/2015/08/034.html).

Some American journalists went even as far as to downplay some of the horrors the Nazis had already committed against Jews and others. As Birchall of the Times, during a March 12 radio broadcast from Berlin, reported that “German violence had been spent” and went on to say that “prosperity and happiness” would soon take its place. While a page-one dispatch from the New York Herald Tribune’s Berlin correspondent on March 25 presented the assertion that the situation of German Jewry while “an unhappy one,” that many of the atrocity stories were “exaggerated and often unfounded(https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-american-papers-that-praised-hitler/).”

However one of the most crucial interactions of journalism that had served as a means to downplay the concerns of Hitler and the Nazis was with Anne O’ Hare McCormick exclusive interview that was printed in the New York Times with the headline: “HITLER SEEKS JOBS FOR ALL GERMANS; 'Does Anything Else Matter?' He Asks, Stressing Efforts to End Unemployment. CROMWELL IS HIS HERO Chancellor Admires Roosevelt for Marching to Objectives Over Congress and Lobbies. HITLER SEEKS JOBS FOR ALL GERMANS(https://www.nytimes.com/1933/07/10/archives/hitler-seeks-jobs-for-all-germans-does-anything-else-matter-he-asks.html).”

As 6 of the most prominent American newspapers during this period were actually more critical of President Franklin Roosevelt’s policies than of Hitler’s due to many of the owners “America First”, and pro isolationism stances(https://www.rawstory.com/right-wing-newspapers/).

This is where the Black Press would play a crucial role in terms of media coverage. As many publications would set out and publish each key story of each enacted policy and action unequivocally. Along with criticisms of Hitler, the Nazi party and their allies in America as shown below.

From the Pittsburgh Courier, the “Nazis not Jazzy” article, which reminded Black(other) readers of the Nazis attitudes towards Jazz music(https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1933-nazis-not-jazzy-8872). As the music genre had the ability to bring upon people of different backgrounds. Which resulted in the following attitudes towards the music, resulting in Jazz being referring to it as “degenerate music”, by the Nazis especially in taking a page from Henry Ford’s paper the “Dearborn Independent” in claiming that Jazz was a Jewish creation, in their attempt in allying with Blacks for the purpose of taking over(https://www.pbs.org/perilousfight/social/antisemitism/letters/). The Nazis would follow suit in their propaganda campaigns by using the pamphlet designed by Hans Severus Ziegler of the infamous Entartete Musik exhibition, that featured an offensively drawn tuxedo wearing, Black musician playing a saxophone with a Star of David pinned to his lapel(Figure 11. Tudor Parfitt, Hybrid Hate, 2020, Oxford Press, p. 203).

One of the interesting responses towards Hitler & the Nazis activities was in the “Journal and Guide” April 18, 1933 edition page A6 titled “Another Klansman” seen below. As it occurred during the aftermath of Hitler’s crackdown on Jewish businesses.

Both the Pittsburgh Courier and Indianapolis Recorder(https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1933-hitlerism-on-rampage-6114 ) would also go on to report of the Nazis boycott of Jewish Businesses in retaliation for the Jewish community’s protest towards the Nazis policies, like many of the other papers of the time(https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/boycott-of-jewish-businesses ). However the Pittsburgh Courier went further in warning its Black audience of the similarities of the Nazis actions with those that their own community had experienced. Calling for their audience to be vigilant as this could be a situation they can be facing(https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1933-jewish-pogroms-in-germany-49813). As just a decade prior both the Tulsa(https://www.britannica.com/event/Tulsa-race-massacre-of-1921 ) and Rosewood Massacres(https://www.rosewoodflorida.com) had occurred. As next to their section covering the German Jewish community, the case of the Scottsboro Boys, who were young Black men who were falsely accused of raping two White women(https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1933-jewish-pogroms-in-germany-49813).

As many of the Black newspapers would cover the Nazis attacks on Jewish businesses and livelihoods, from The Afro-American’s(or The Baltimore Afro-American)coverage of Hitler ordering the closing of Jewish businesses, the resignations of Jewish judges & the restriction of Jewish travel while comparing it to similar practices of the American South(https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1933-hitler-embarrasses-uncle-sam-44861)". Meanwhile other Black newspapers such as The Tribune Independent of Michigan(https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1935-crisis-urges-boycott-of-1936-olympic-games-21978) covered the calls for the boycott of the 1936 Berlin Olympics, the Indianapolis Recorder, covered Hitler’s announcement in 1935 of the aforementioned Nuremberg Laws(https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1935-the-streicher-broadside-9607). While The New York Age, had the emphasis on drawing parallels between the discriminatory conditions in both Nazi Germany and the USA(https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1935-compares-germanys-discrimination-to-conditions-in-u-s-8870).

As World War II was underway Black Newspapers were amongst the papers that criticized the actions of Charlie Lindbergh and the pro-isolationist American First Committee(https://www.njpbs.org/programs/the-u-s-and-the-holocaust/charles-lindbergh-america-first-committee-pvvpnm/).

During this time Charles Lindbergh(1902-1974), famous for the first solo transatlantic flight, had became an outspoken isolationist, spokesman for the America First group and by all accounts sympathetic to the Nazis(https://enc.wymaninstitute.org/?p=320). With the most glaring example being his September 11, 1941 speech in Des Monies Iowa. The infamous un-American speech. As he would be roundly criticized for such an inflammatory speech where he accused the British, the Jewish community and the Roosevelt Administration of wanting the United States to be at war with Nazi Germany.

In response multiple outlets condemned the speech, with Black Newspapers such as the Philadelphia Tribune, having the page 1 headline of “Make Lindy Black and Put Him in Texas(https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1941-make-lindy-black-and-put-him-in-texas-1575).” Implying that Lindbergh wouldn’t be praising the country, western civilization in his speech if he had to live under the conditions of Jim Crow. Let alone being able to have received his Order of the German Eagle from Hermann Goering, the highest ranking Nazi official after Hitler(https://www.brandeis.edu/magazine/2021/fall/letters.html).

In closing there are a few articles I would like to bring attention to, from the New York Amsterdam News and the Atlanta Daily World(https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/USHMM-HUF-Black-Press-Primary-Sources-Packet.pdf). As they both indirectly refute the argument presented by President Harding, in his fore mention speech above about economic and political equality only being needed not social equality, when he referred to Stoddard’s book(https://www.nytimes.com/1921/10/27/archives/harding-says-negro-must-have-equality-in-political-life-does-not.html).

As the New York Amsterdam News September 21, 1935 letter to the editor, “Rebuffing Hitler”, the writer stated he believed that Black athletes going to Nazi Germany, a country whose race-baiting and oppressive policies towards Jews were on par with or only exceeded by those occurring in the United States at the time. That if Black athletes attend the Berlin Olympics and win. It would be a very against Nazism, Fascism & White Supremacy(https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/USHMM-HUF-Black-Press-Primary-Sources-Packet.pdf p10-11).

The Atlanta Daily World, November 20, 1938 article: “What Then, Black Americans?” Asks a serious question, though it brings up the stereotype of Jews and wealth, but when thinking more about it, it shows how such aspects of antisemitism are contradictory(let alone ridiculous). As the writer presents that Jewish history has times of hardship, peace and the in between. When many may have success, but that “wealth” does not always protect them from those dead set upon their destruction. Because if it did these situations of oppression would be a lot fewer within the historical period. Thus asking his fellow Black Americans, if this one group of people constantly have face to oppression, how would only economic security be the only defense against it(https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/USHMM-HUF-Black-Press-Primary-Sources-Packet.pdf p23-24)?

As the December 26, 1942, article of the Chicago Defender: “Nazi Butchers” goes further after evidence of the Nazis atrocities were becoming more apparent(https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/USHMM-HUF-Black-Press-Primary-Sources-Packet.pdfp38-39). The call for the destruction of Nazism and Fascism was made as it apparent that such heinous crimes would not stop in Europe against the Jewish community and others within Hitler’s grasp, but those who believed in similar ideas inside the United States would unleash them upon Black Americans(image below).

As we finish I would like to close with the words of a key figure in Black Journalism. Who witnessed Nazis actions first hand.

““Now we would get a chance to see [Hitler] with our own eyes…There I was, a kinky-haired, brown-skinned eight-year-old boy amid a sea of blond and blue-eyed kids, filled with childlike patriotism, still shielded by blissful ignorance. Like everyone around me, I cheered the man whose every waking hour was dedicated to the destruction of ‘inferior non-Aryan people’ like myself.” Hans J. Massaquoi, Destined to Witness: Growing up Black in Nazi Germany.

Hans J. Massaquoi would work as a Journalist for Jet Magazine and managing editor Ebony Magazine(https://www.jacksonville.com/story/news/nation-world/2013/01/22/former-editor-who-described-time-growing-black-nazi-germany-dies/15840573007/).

Thank you for taking the time reading, I hope that you come away from this article with a new perspective on this chapter of not only Black and American history but World history as well.

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https://newspapers.ushmm.org/search/advanced-results?tag_id[]=1 Newspaper articles from numerous Black press publications.

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https://www.timesofisrael.com/the-1920s-white-supremacist-influencer-beloved-by-president-harding-and-hitler/amp/ “The 1920s white supremacist influencer beloved by president Harding – and Hitler Historian Lothrop Stoddard helped found 'Nordic' movement to battle 'the rising tide of color' in US and abroad, but was laughed off stage in debate with Black thinker Du Bois”

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Losurdo, Domenico (2004). "Toward a Critique of the Category of Totalitarianism" (PDF, 0.2 MB). Historical Materialism. 12 (2). Translated by Marella & Jon Morris. Brill: 25–55, here p. 50

Stefan Kühl (2001). The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism. Oxford University Press US. p. 61, 85

https://www.loc.gov/item/sn86090449/ “The Searchlight (Atlanta, Ga.) 1920-1924”

Clarence Lusane (2003): Hitler's black victims: the historical experiences of Afro-Germans, European Blacks, Africans, and African Americans in the Nazi era. Routledge, p. 200

https://www.insider.com/nazis-studied-us-eugenics-jim-crow-laws-model-policies-2022-9?amp “The Nazis studied US eugenics and Jim Crow laws as a model for their policies. When they were criticized, one historian says, 'they pointed to Mississippi.'”

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https://wienerholocaustlibrary.org/exhibition/the-persecution-of-black-people-in-nazi-germany-ronald-roberts-story/ “The Persecution of Black People in Nazi Germany: Ronald Roberts’ Story. Online Exhibition”

Cook,Erza A. 1922. Ku Klux Klan Secrets Exposed: Attitude Towards Jews, Catholics, Foreigners, and Masons: Fraudulent Methods Used, Atrocities Committed in Name of Order. Chicago, p.37

https://vault.fbi.gov/german-american-bund “German American Federation/Bund”

https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/german-american-bund “THE GERMAN AMERICAN BUND: A PRO-NAZI ORGANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES”

https://www.buffalo.edu/news/releases/2015/08/034.html “How media ‘fluff’ helped Hitler rise to power: A new book illuminates how propagandists used lifestyle stories to soften Hitler’s image prior to World War II”

https://www.nytimes.com/1933/07/10/archives/hitler-seeks-jobs-for-all-germans-does-anything-else-matter-he-asks.html ““HITLER SEEKS JOBS FOR ALL GERMANS; 'Does Anything Else Matter?' He Asks, Stressing Efforts to End Unemployment. CROMWELL IS HIS HERO Chancellor Admires Roosevelt for Marching to Objectives Over Congress and Lobbies. HITLER SEEKS JOBS FOR ALL GERMANS”

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Figure 11. Tudor Parfitt, Hybrid Hate, Conflations of Antisemitism & Anti- Black Racism from the Renaissance to the Third Reich, 2020, Oxford Press, p. 203

https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1933-hitlerism-on-rampage-6114 “Hitlerism on Rampage”

https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1933-jewish-pogroms-in-germany-49813 “Jewish Pogroms In Germany”

https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/boycott-of-jewish-businesses “BOYCOTT OF JEWISH BUSINESSES”

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https://www.rosewoodflorida.com “Preserving the History of THE REAL
Rosewood”

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https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1935-crisis-urges-boycott-of-1936-olympic-games-21978 “CRISIS URGES BOYCOTT OF 1936 OLYMPIC GAMES SAYS THAT OUR TEAM SHOULD BE WITHDRAWN FROM THE BERLIN OLYMPICS”

https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1935-the-streicher-broadside-9607 “The Streicher Broadside”

https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1935-compares-germanys-discrimination-to-conditions-in-u-s-8870 “Compares Germany's Discrimination To Conditions In U. S.”

https://enc.wymaninstitute.org/?p=320 “LINDBERGH, CHARLES”

https://www.njpbs.org/programs/the-u-s-and-the-holocaust/charles-lindbergh-america-first-committee-pvvpnm/ “Charles Lindbergh & The America First Committee”

https://newspapers.ushmm.org/historical-article/1941-make-lindy-black-and-put-him-in-texas-1575. “'Make Lindy Black and Put Him in Texas'”

https://www.brandeis.edu/magazine/2021/fall/letters.html. “Letters”

https://www.jacksonville.com/story/news/nation-world/2013/01/22/former-editor-who-described-time-growing-black-nazi-germany-dies/15840573007/ “Former editor who described time growing up black in Nazi Germany dies in Jacksonville”

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