Hello again & Shabbat Shalom. Today once again I will be exploring the diversity of the Jewish community. As before one group or 2-3 groups at a time depending on the information I have available.
This time the geography will move us further into Central Asia, where the Jewish community we’ll be covering had its primary development & as well gained their name. This place being the former Emirate of Bukhara(Golden, Peter B. (2011). Central Asia in World History. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 115), that had existed from 1785 to 1920, consisting of what is now Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara). The Jewish community from here is known as the Bukharan Jews.
The Bukharan Jews(in Bukharian: יהודי בוכרה/яҳудиёни бухорӣ, Yahudiyoni Bukhorī, Hebrew: יְהוּדִים־בּוּכָרִים, Yehudim Bukharim) are an unique Jewish community with a rich history, culture, and religious tradition in Central Asia(especially Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan & Tajikistan) & along the famous Silk Road, who had initially branched out from the Persian Jewish communities at least as far back as the Sassanid Persian Empire of the 5th century CE.
When it comes their community’s origins some Bukharan Jews connect their ancestry to the exiles of the ancient Israelite tribes of Naphtali and Issachar during the Assyrian captivity(https://m.jpost.com/food-index/the-jewish-palate-the-bukharian-jews).
This assumption is based upon a reading of "Habor" in II Kings 17:6 as a reference to Bukhara. The verse in question: “In the ninth year of Hoshea, the king of Assyria captured Samaria and deported Israel to Assyria. He placed them in Halah, in Habor, in the river regions of Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes.” 2 Kings 17:6 LEB
However the overall Bukharim tradition associates their founding elsewhere in Central Asia by Persian Jews fleeing the persecutions of Sassanid Persian king, Peroz I (458–485 CE) Abraham N. Poliak, Uzbekistan, Encyclopedia Judaica, 2nd ed., 2007, volume 20 pp.447-448,447).
In the opinion of some scholars, Jews had settled in Central Asia at least by the sixth century, but it is certain that during the eighth to ninth centuries they lived in Central Asian cities such as Balkh, Khwarezm, and Merv. At that time, and until approximately the sixteenth century, Bukharan Jews formed a group continuous with Jews of Iran and Afghanistan(https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/bukharan-jews)
As the earliest primary written account concerning the presence of Jewish communities within Central Asia at the start of the 4th century CE. It is recounted in the Talmud by Rabbi Shmuel bar Bisna. Who was a member of the Talmudic academy in Pumbeditha, who traveled to Margiana (present-day Merv in Turkmenistan).
“The Gemara relates that Rav Shmuel bar Bisna happened to come to Marguan, and they brought him wine but he did not drink it. Next they brought him beer but he did not drink it. The Gemara asks: Granted, he did not drink the wine due to the trace [shimtza] of libations, but due to what reason did he refrain from drinking beer? It was due to concern for the trace of a trace, i.e., he did not drink beer due to concern about drinking wine(Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Aboda Zara, 31b, and Rashi)”
The presence of Jewish communities in Merv is also proven by Jewish writings on ossuaries from the 5th and 6th centuries, uncovered between 1954 and 1956(Ochildiev, D; R. Pinkhasov, I. Kalontarov. A History and Culture of the Bukharian Jews, Roshnoyi-Light, New York, 2007).
From a scientific perspective a genetic study in 2013, “No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews” (https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=humbiol_preprints), had shown that multiple Jewish groups, including Bukharan Jews, clustered closely with Jewish communities from the Middle East and the Caucasus such as Iranian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, Kurdish Jews and Iraqi Jews, along with other Middle Eastern and West Asian people including Kurds, Iranians, Armenians, Syrians, & Druze, as they did not cluster with their neighbors(when like to see more update studies like these to see if there is any new information).
Despite these multiple origins(or a combination of them) the Bukharim are considered to be one of the oldest ethno-religious groups of Central Asia. As they have developed their own distinct culture, that throughout the years have been enriched further, thanks to Jews from other Eastern countries such as Iraq, Iran, Yemen, Syria, and as far away as Morocco who migrated into Central Asia, primarily through the Silk Road(https://m.jpost.com/travel/travel-news/wandering-jew-bukhara-the-ancient-silk-way-city).
Although the famous the Jewish traveler, Benjamin of Tudela(https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-of-Tudela), does not mention the town of Bukhara, he does mentions a nearby community in Samarkand(https://www.britannica.com/place/Samarkand-Uzbekistan) at the end of the 12th century which numbered 50,000 (this number was probably not based on personal observation and is not necessarily accurate).
The Bukharan Jewish community, along with many others, were devastated during the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. However Jewish settlement in the town of Bukhara appears to have been recovered during the 14th century, and by the 16th century Bukhara apparently became a center of Jewish life in Central Asia.(https://dbs.anumuseum.org.il/skn/en/c6/e229348/Place/Bukhara). More on this historical period below.
When it comes to the name of the Bukharan Jews themselves, it is interesting to note that the term Bukharan had came about due to European travellers visiting Central Asia around the 16th century. At the time most of the Jewish community in the region were living under the Bukhara Khanate prior to it becoming the Emirate. Hence why they came to be known as Bukharan Jews. Traditionally the name that the community had called itself was "Bnei Isro'il" or “Bnei Israel”(Kamoludin Abdullaev. (2018) Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers; Third edition p.229)
Just like many of the groups of Persian Jewry previously mentioned, the Bukharan Jews also speak a unique language just like their related kin. That language being a form of Judeo-Persian from the Tajik branch, called Bukharian/ Judeo-Tajik(Zand, Michael (1989). "BUKHARA vii. Bukharan Jews". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume IV/5: Brick–Burial II. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 530–545).
Characteristics of Bukharian or Judeo-Tajik are first a number of unique traits that are not shared by the Tajik language itself. From a phonological and prosodic perspective, Judeo-Tajik is distinguished by a number of different question and exclamation intonations, as well as by the existence of unique phonemes ( ex. the guttural Hebrew letters het and ayin). Next from a morphological perspective, there are also differences in the conjugation of verbs, such as merum (I will go), which is pronounced meravam in Tajik, or rafsode (he is going) – rafta istodaast in Tajik(https://www.jewishlanguages.org/judeo-tajik).
Alongside those differences there is the presence of Hebrew-Aramaic elements in Judeo-Tajik that in most cases had retained their original meanings. However, semantic shifts occurred in some Hebrew-Aramaic words. For example: Barokho < ברכה ‘blessing’ sometimes is used in the meaning of ‘profit,’ ‘benefit’
Benodom derives from Hebrew בן אדם ‘human being.’ Like in Judeo-Spanish(or Ladino), the word narrowed its meaning from any person to ‘a well-behaved, considerate person’
Gaovo ‘vain,’ ‘arrogant’ < גאווה 'pride’
Yüshvo ‘funeral repast’ < ישיבה ‘sitting’
Asoro עשרה > ‘ten,’ the word narrowed its meaning to a ‘quorum for prayer’
Another characteristic is the presence of some compound nouns in Judeo-Tajik, where one of the stems is of Hebrew-Aramaic origin, and another is of Tajik origin.
Here are two examples: kosher+khür (khür - the present stem of the verb khürdan ‘eat’) ‘eater kosher food’ or “person who consumes only kosher food”.
mahelo+tavli (tavl < talabidan [J.-T. verb built of Arabic talab + J.-T. affixation -i-dan] the present stem of the verb talabidan ‘ask,’ ’demand’ + suffix - i that forms abstract nouns) ‘asking for forgiveness(https://www.jewishlanguages.org/judeo-tajik).’
Here is an audio example of the language:
Mentioned previously in my beginning article on Persian Jewry, there were two important figures from the Bukharian community when it came to writing, religious life & education.
The first being Moroccan Rabbi Yosef Maimon, who introduced the Sephardic liturgy/rite to the Bukharian Jewish community(Ochildiev, D.; Pinkhasov, R.; Kalontarov, I. (2007). A History and Culture of the Bukharian Jews. New York: Roshnoyi-Light. p. 41.) While his grandson who continued his work Rabbi Shimon Hakham(1843-1910). Hakham is an important figure in that his fluency in Persian, Hebrew, & Arabic. As well as an accomplished author & educator, Rabbi Hakham had translated & published both religious & secular books in his native Bukhori(another name for the Judeo-Tajik)(Dymshits, Valery; Zwolle, Waanders Uitgevers; Emelyanenko, Tatjana; Netherlands), Joods Historisch Museum (Amsterdam (1998). Facing West: Oriental Jews of Central Asia and the Caucasus. Antique Collectors Club Limited.) For the Bukharan community. I will go into more detail concerning these two later on.
Here are written examples of Bukharian/ Judeo-Tajik courtesy of Jewish Language Project(https://www.jewishlanguages.org)
A Bukharan-Jewish (Judeo-Tajik) translation of the “1001 Nights” (“Arabian Nights”) published in Kokand (Xökand/Qo‘qon) in 1914
Rahamim, Bukharian newspaper from Fergana, Uzbekistan, 1910s
Another aspect of traditional Bukharim culture/traditions are their traditional clothing. Their traditional dress is similar to the other cultures of Central Asia but unique unto themselves. For example the Kaftan(https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/kaftan/ )or Jomah(ҷома-ג'אמה) in Bukhori and Tajik, is a variant of the robe/tunic originally from Asia that can be made from wool, cashmere, silk, or cotton, and may be worn with a sash. In the case of Bukharan Jewish men and women it can be colorful & made from silk(https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/362845-0 & https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/376672-0).
The Bukharim community also have a unique piece of religious clothing. Which would be their Kippah. A Kippah(also known as a yarmulke or yamaka) is a traditional religious head covering typically worn by Jewish men(https://jewishmuseum.org.uk/schools/asset/kippah/). In the case of Bukharan Jews theirs is a a full head-sized covering with rich patterns and lively colors embroidered.
Seen here:
(https://www.timesofisrael.com/what-a-kippa-really-tells-you-about-its-wearer/amp/)
Due to its popularity that aside from Bukharan Jews themselves, even other Jewish groups such as the Reform Jews(Jewish religious sect that will be touch on later) can be seen wearing the Bukharan kippah as well(https://forward.com/news/4778/kippah-couture/).
(On a personal note, if I had were to wear a kippah, the Bukharan kippah would be one of my top choices as it is one of my favorites.)
Besides language & clothing, food is another unique part of traditional Bukharan Jews’ culture. As Bukharan cuisine consists of many unique dishes that were distinctly influenced by dishes of other ethnicities historically and currently found along the Silk Road as well as many other parts of Central Asia and even as far away as Southeast Asia.
For example Oshi sabo (osh savo or osovoh), or a "meal in a pot" is slowly cooked overnight and eaten hot for Shabbat lunch. Oshi sabo is made with meat, rice, vegetables, and fruit added for a unique sweet and sour taste. Also given the virtue of its culinary function, you can say that “oshi sabo” is a Bukharan version of cholent or hamin(https://jmoreliving.com/2018/10/23/this-bukharian-jewish-meaty-rice-dish-is-the-crockpot-meal-you-need/).
Another example would be Bakhsh. Bakhsh is a rice dish easily recognizable for its distinctive green coloration, which results from the use of green herbs like cilantro and dill. Alongside the herbs there are finely chopped meat or chicken, onions and other aromatics. While Kov Roghan is soft potato wedges are simmered with cubes of either chicken or meat in a broth to make for a nourishing meal. Some soak up the remaining broth on the plate with lepyoshka, a round Uzbek bread adopted by Bukharians((https://www.myjewishlearning.com/the-nosher/8-essential-jewish-bhukarian-dishes/)
The Bukharim community along with other Jewish communities within Central Asia had lived with Muslim neighbors and rulers for centuries since Islam’s spread into the region. Just as Jewish communities under Arab or Muslim rule there were ups and downs for the Bukharan community too.
As Bukharan Jews too had lived with Dhimmi or protected person status, along with paying a special tax, for protection, the Jizya(https://www.britannica.com/topic/jizya). However despite protections the Dhimmi status is supposed to confer, the Bukharan community still suffered from periodic discrimination. Examples of such acts include being forced to wear a yellow patch along with a special hat called a Tilpak to identify them as Jews, their belts being made of rope, as leather belts were reserved for Muslims. Like in other locations such as Yemen, when covering their community previously, their stores and homes had to be lower than Muslim ones, and lastly in court cases, any evidence from a Jew was inadmissible when it involved a Muslim(Cooper, Alanna (December 7, 2012). Bukharan Jews and the Dynamics of Global Judaism. Indiana University Press. & Glueck, Grace (6 August 1999). "DESIGN REVIEW; when Russia Uncovered Exotic Jewish Cultures - the New York Times". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-09-17).
Also there were attempts during the 18th century to push forced conversions of the Bukharim, which was renewed at the beginning of the 19th century. As many Jews were forcibly converted to Islam, creating a class of forced converts, anusim, who appeared to be faithful Muslims, but who secretly observed Judaism(https://dbs.anumuseum.org.il/skn/en/c6/e229348/Place/Bukhara).
Meanwhile during this period, around the start of the 17th century, the Jewish quarter, Mahalla, was established in the town of Bukhara. However the Jewish community were forbidden to reside outside its boundaries(Rachel L. Goldenweiser. (2005). The Bukharian Jews through the Lenses of the 19th Century Russian Photographers. Iran & the Caucasus, 9(2), 257–272. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4030956 & https://dbs.anumuseum.org.il/skn/en/c6/e229348/Place/Bukhara)
By the middle of the 18th century, practically all Bukharan Jews lived in the Bukharan Emirate. During the early 1860s, Arminius Vambery, a Hungarian-Jewish traveler visited the emirate disguised as a Sunni dervish(https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dervish), writing in his journals that the Jews of Bukhara "live in utmost oppression, being despised by everyone(Malikov A. Arminius Vambery and the urban culture of Samarkand In: Orpheus Noster, Vol. 14, no. 4, 2022, p.97-108)”
However the community still thrive under these circumstances, especially when considering two of their most notable members during this period I had mentioned earlier: Rabbi Yosef Maimon & his grandson, Rabbi Shimon Hakham.
Rabbi Yosef Maimon(1741–1822) was the one credited in introducing the Sephardic liturgy/rite to the Bukharim(Ochildiev, D.; Pinkhasov, R.; Kalontarov, I. (2007). A History and Culture of the Bukharian Jews. New York: Roshnoyi-Light. p. 41.) Originally traveling through the region to raise money for a Yeshiva back in Safed(also known as Tzfat in modern Israel today)Rabbi Mammon had became concerned about the state of religious practice amongst the Bukharan community during his visit in 1793. Leading him choosing to stay in order to strengthen Judaism within the community(Ochildiev, D.; Pinkhasov, R.; Kalontarov, I. (2007). A History and Culture of the Bukharian Jews. New York: Roshnoyi-Light. p. 41.)
As he is quoted in characterizing the community as: “"As I arrived in Bukhara in 1793, I found my co-religionists in a state of utter ignorance. Only a few of them could read. I found serious deviations in Jewish observance. The local community did not have leaders who could competently govern their people. In addition, there weren't enough religious literature, the community owned only two copies of the Holy Scripture, and even then, they only had the first three books of the Pentateuch( Meindorf (1975). The Travel from Orenburg to Bukhara. p. 96-97).”
However this would not be an easy endeavor. Because before Rabbi Maimon's arrival, the native Jews of Bukhara followed the Persian Jewry religious tradition or rite. As Rabbi Maimon himself a Moroccan Jew who followed the Sephardic rite, strongly pushed the native Jews of Bukhara to do the same by adopting Sephardic traditions/rite. Many of the native Bukharans Jews were opposed to this causing a rift in the community. The followers of Maimon eventually won this struggle for religious authority, and the Bukharim switched to the Sephardic rite. As the supporters of the Maimon clan, in the conflict, credited Maimon with causing a revival of Jewish practice among Bukharan Jews which they claim was in danger of dying out. However, there is evidence that there were Torah scholars present upon Rabbi Maimon’s arrival to Bukhara, but because they followed the Persian rite their practices were aggressively rejected as incorrect by Maimon(Cooper, Alanna (December 7, 2012). Bukharan Jews and the Dynamics of Global Judaism. Indiana University Press. p. 60).
Also Rabbi Maimon is an ancestor of Israeli jeweler & Biblical antiquities collector Shlomo Moussaieff(1925 – July 1, 2015), author Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson(1941), and the former First Lady of Iceland Dorrit Moussaieff(1950).
But as I had mentioned earlier the one who would continue his work, would be his great-grandson, Rabbi Shimon Hakham(1843-1910). Rabbi Hakham did so in 1870 by opening the ‘Talmid Hakham’ yeshiva in Bukhara, where religious law was promoted. At that time Bukharan Jews were getting only a general education, which mostly consisted of religious laws, reading, writing and some math. Even though they studied Torah, many Bukharim did not speak fluent Hebrew. Only a few books were written in Persian and many of them were old and incomplete. Hakham decided to change this situation by translating religious books into Bukhori(Dymshits, Valery; Zwolle, Waanders Uitgevers; Emelyanenko, Tatjana; Netherlands), Joods Historisch Museum (Amsterdam (1998). Facing West: Oriental Jews of Central Asia and the Caucasus. Antique Collectors Club Limited. p.13) But since there was no printing in Bukhara at that time, he went to Jerusalem to print his books. In doing so he helped established Jerusalem’s Bukharan Quarter (Hebrew: שכונת הבוכרים/ Sh'hunat HaBucharim), where Bukharan synagogues, schools and printing were opened(Thrower, James (2004). The Religious History of Central Asia from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Edwin Mellen Press. p.260 & Goldberg, Harvey E. (1996). Sephardi and Middle Eastern Jewries: History and Culture in the Modern Era. Indiana University Press. p. 37-38).
After returning to Bukhara, he distributed his books. Afterwards Rabbi Shimon went to back to Jerusalem, where he would spend his remaining years. 1900 until Rabbi Shimon’s death in 1910 can be seen as one of the best in Bukharan literature thanks to Rabbi Hakham. Along with rewriting the whole Tanakh in the Bukharan language. He also wrote and translated the following books: Likudei dinim(1900), Dreams and their meaning (1901), Yosef and Zuleiha (1902), The Passover Haggadah(1904), and Meghilat Ester (1905). While his secular work consists of a translation of Avraham Mapu/Abraham Mapu’s novel Ahavat Zion/Kissaii Amnun va Tomor(Goldberg, Harvey E. (1996). Sephardi and Middle Eastern Jewries: History and Culture in the Modern Era. Indiana University Press. p. 37-38)
The mid-19 century for the Bukharan Jews was a major turning point in their history just like the other Jewish communities with historical ties to Persia, Central Asia & the Caucuses as well as with each other. Because this was when the Imperial Russian conquests of the region started, and some regions of the Bukharan Emirate(including the towns of Samarkand and Tashkent) were incorporated into Russia. Resulting in the Emir of Bukhara becoming a representative of the Russian government, rather than a Sunni Muslim one. As a result of the Russian takeover there was a major movement of Jews from the Bukharan Emirate to the Russian-dominated region of Turkistan. The circumstances leading to this migration were due to the Emirate’s leadership blaming the Jewish community for their defeat at the hands of the Russians, subjecting the Jews in their country to additional persecutions. Meanwhile in Russian controlled Turkistan, Jews were not under any special restrictions, unlike those who lived in the infamous Pale of Settlement. The communities here were regarded as loyal subjects of the Russian Empire with the right to trade freely, purchase land, and to live without restrictions. As such many of the forced converts returned to Judaism once they were under Russian rule(https://dbs.anumuseum.org.il/skn/en/c6/e229348/Place/Bukhara).
Under Imperial Russian rule, the Bukharim community prospered, because they were able to expand their ability to trade not only within Central Asia but Russia proper as well. However this did not last long, because Russian merchants and industrialists soon found themselves in competition with the new Jewish citizens of the Empire. After exerting pressure on the Russian government, the government issued in 1888 a decree differentiating between the Jews who had lived in the Turkistan region prior to the Russian conquest, and those who had arrived later.
As "native Jews," who had lived in the area before the conquest, as well as their descendents, they were granted equal rights with the local Muslims, while those who had arrived after the Russian conquest were legally classified as foreign citizens. Those who were classified as foreign citizens had their rights restricted, and were ordered to return to the Bukharan Emirate by 1905, with additional restrictions placed on where they could live until they returned "to their place of residence." Eventually all the Jews living in the territory of the Russian controlled Turkmen region were ordered expelled. However the enforcement of this decree was postponed, first until 1909, and then 1910, for fear of damaging Russian trading interests. Ultimately the implementation of these edicts proved to be unsuccessful for two major reasons. The general disorganization of the Russian Empire's bureaucracy, the other reason being the resistance and lack of cooperation by the Jewish community(https://dbs.anumuseum.org.il/skn/en/c6/e229348/Place/Bukhara).
This condition will not last long as Imperial Russia will fall in the 1917 Revolution leading to the formation of the USSR or the Soviet Union. Which Bukhara was soon conquered by in 1920. Leading to Many of the wealthiest Bukharan Jewish families losing their rights because, according to the Soviets, before the revolution they had been engaging in exploitation(https://dbs.anumuseum.org.il/skn/en/c6/e229348/Place/Bukhara).
At the beginning the initial perception was that the Soviets would continue a policy of toleration towards the Bukharan Jewish community. This new political view resulted in increased animosity from some of the local Muslim community, resulting in several riots breaking out against the Jewish community from 1918 to 1920. Then following the Soviet takeover of Bukhara and the creation of the Soviet Social Republics of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, synagogues were destroyed or closed down, and were replaced by Soviet institutions(Loy, Thomas (2022). "Cross-border biographies: representations of the "Bukharan" Jewish self in changing cultural and political settings". Journal of Modern Jewish Studies. 22 (3): 4.).
Resulting in many Bukharan Jews fleeing to the West, via Iran and Afghanistan. As Soviet doctrines, ideology and nationalities policy huge impact on the everyday life, culture and identity of the Bukharan Jews was unbearable for so many. As those who remained struggled to preserve their traditions while displaying loyalty to the new government(Loy, Thomas (2022). "Cross-border biographies: representations of the "Bukharan" Jewish self in changing cultural and political settings". Journal of Modern Jewish Studies. 22 (3): 4.).
However their situation worsened under Joseph Stalin. Not long after taking power, Stalin ended Vladimir Lenin's New Economic Policy, he had initiated the First five-year plan during the late 1920s, which resulted in the drastic deterioration of living conditions for the Bukharan Jews. By the time Soviet authorities fully established their hold over the borders in Central Asia in the mid 1930s, tens of thousands of people from Central Asia had crossed the border into Iran and Afghanistan, amongst them some 4,000 Bukharan Jews (comprising about one tenth of the total number of Bukharan Jews in Central Asia), were heading towards the region of the British Mandate of Palestine(Loy, Thomas (2022). "Cross-border biographies: representations of the "Bukharan" Jewish self in changing cultural and political settings". Journal of Modern Jewish Studies. 22 (3): 5.)
As a result of the anti-religious policies the Soviets imposed on Central Asia during this time, the distinction between Jews and Muslims had eroded(Cooper, Alanna (December 7, 2012). Bukharan Jews and the Dynamics of Global Judaism. Indiana University Press. p. 60).
World War II and the Holocaust brought another change to the Bukharim community. The war and the horrors it unleashed brought many Ashkenazi Jewish refugees from the European regions of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe to Uzbekistan. In general Ashkenazi Jews and Bukharan Jews interacted very little, and intermarriage between the two was practically non-existent due to the cultural differences between them(https://m.jpost.com/jewish-world/jewish-features/rift-over-root-differences-remains-unmended-for-uzbek-jews).
In 1948 began the "Black Years of Soviet Jewry," where the suppression of the Jewish community resumed after attention was primarily focused on the war effort(Gitelman, Zvi (Apr 22, 2001). A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present. Indiana University Press. pp. 144–145)
During the same year with declaration of independence of Israel and the 6 Day War of 1967 tensions between Jewish and Muslims communities in Soviet Central Asia escalated, with the war leading to a rise in Jewish patriotism as Bukharan Jews and others carried out demonstrations as refuseniks, a Soviet citizen and especially a Jewish individual denied or refused permission to emigrate (Blady, Ken (2000). Jewish Communities in Exotic Places. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 185). Until 1970s there was no major immigration of Bukharim to Israel. It wouldn’t be until 1975 when 8,000 managed to immigrate from the USSR(Minahan, James B. (Feb 10, 2014). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 41).
Which is saddening when considering that there were Bukharan Jews who devoted time into creating a Bukharan Jewish Soviet culture and national identity, that were either charged during Stalin's Great Purge(https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Purge), or who were forced to assimilate into the Soviet Uzbek or Soviet Tajik national identities as part of the Soviet Union's nationalities policies and nation building campaigns(Loy, Thomas (2022). "Cross-border biographies: representations of the "Bukharan" Jewish self in changing cultural and political settings". Journal of Modern Jewish Studies. 22 (3): 5.).
The late 20th century, particularly the late 1980s-mid 1990s brought forward a new turning point for the estimated 45,000 Bukharan Jews of Central Asia(Cooper, Alanna E. (2003). "Looking Out for One's Own Identity: Central Asian Jews in the Wake of Communism". In Kosmin, Barry Alexander; Kovács, András (eds.). New Jewish Identities: Contemporary Europe and Beyond. Central European University Press. pp. 189–210). Because this would be a time of change that lead to the vast majority of Bukharan Jews leaving the region for places such as the United States, Israel, Europe, & even Australia. For these two primary reasons. The first would be the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union, which freed the population from their restrictive policies. While the second being the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in the newly independent republics of Uzbekistan & Tajikistan. As riots against Jews in the city of Andijan & nearby areas in resulted in most of the community(both Bukharan and Ashkenazi) leaving for Europe, Israel & the United States in 1990(Blady, Ken (2000). Jewish Communities in Exotic Places. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 185).
Moving out of Central Asia the Bukharan Jews fortunes changes from location to location as starting with Uzbekistan’s neighbor Tajikistan. As the community’s history in both countries is quite similar. Including the conditions & troubles they have endured during Mongols, the Bukharan Khanate, Emirate, the Tsars, the Soviet Union & its fall. That last part lead to most of the Jews leaving Tajikistan.
However in the capital of Dushanbe, there was still an active synagogue(Dushanbe Synagogue/Bukharian Synagogue) along with a kosher butcher, a mikveh(a ritual bath) & Jewish schools as early as 2006, but the government of Tajikistan had destroyed the synagogue along with the other community buildings as it started construction of the Palace of Nations. After outcry from the international community, the Tajik government announced a reversal of its decision and claimed publicly that it would permit the synagogue to be rebuilt on its current site. But in 2008 the government of Tajikistan destroyed the whole synagogue and restarted construction on the Palace of Nations. Since the Dushanbe synagogue was Tajikistan's only synagogue and its destruction left the community without a centre or a place to pray. Resulting in the majority of Bukharan Jews from Tajikistan living in Israel and the United States having very negative views towards the Tajik government, as many have cut off all ties they still had with the country. In 2009, the Tajik government reestablished the synagogue in a different location for the small Jewish community(https://www.rferl.org/a/New_Synagogue_Opens_In_Dushanbe/1621721.html).
Meanwhile in the United States, many of the Bukharim have experienced the immigrant success story. With New York City being the area of the largest presence of Bukharan Jews in the country. As evident by their presence in Queens, New York. Such as Forest Hills and Kew Gardens. With Forest Hills, particularly along 108th Street being known as “Bukharan(Bukharian) Broadway” because since the 1970s, more than 35,000 "Bukharan" émigrés have moved to Forest Hills creating a bustling community, with restaurants, stores, a synagogue & other businesses that together have given 108th street the nickname 'Bukharan Broadway'(Foner, Nancy. New immigrants in New York", Columbia University Press, 2001 p. 133).
As well as having a presence in Corona, Queens, NY centered around the historical synagogue, Congregation Tifereth Israel(https://synagogues-360.anumuseum.org.il/gallery/tifereth-israel-2/). As Bukharan Jews had been moving into Corona in the 1990s. During the mid-1990s they began worshiping in Tifereth Israel's basement. However disputes arose between the old Ashkenazi congregation and the Bukharans and their new rabbi, which came to a head in 1997. The resulting lawsuits in rabbinical and state courts led to the Bukharan congregation taking over the synagogue(LeDuff, Charlie. "Neighborhood report: Corona; New Worshipers Are Bane, Not Balm, for Old Synagogue", The New York Times, October 12, 1997). It is now a historical landmark as it is one of the oldest synagogues in Queens, New York(https://qns.com/2020/01/congregation-tifereth-israel-in-corona-selected-by-new-york-landmarks-conservancy-for-a-10k-grant/).
Despite episodes like the one mentioned above and Bukharan Jews being insular in some ways (living in close proximity to each other, owning and patronizing clusters of stores, and attending their own synagogue rather than other synagogues in the area), they do have positive connections with non-Bukharans in the area.
Over in Israel the history of the Bukharim have been a epic endeavor since the arrival of the earliest known members of the community during the Ottoman period in the early 1870s(Eylon, Lili (2011). "Focus on Israel: Jerusalem: Architecture in the late Ottoman Period: The Bukharan Quarter". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs). Along with the establishing of the aforementioned Bukharan Quarter, due to notable individuals such as Rabbis Shimon Hakham and Shlomo Moussaieff who were among some of the organizers of the quarter. Resulting in Bukharan homes, synagogues, schools, libraries, and a bath house being built(Shaked, Shaul; Netzar, Amnon (2003). איראנו-יודאיקה, כרך ה: לחקר פרס והיהדית [Irano-Judaica, Part V: Studies Relating to Jewish Contacts with Persian Culture Throughout the Ages]. מכון בן צבי לחקר קהילות ישראל במזרח. p. 199).
Due to these efforts and established ties the Bukharim neighborhood was one of the most affluent sections of the city, populated by Bukharan Jewish merchants and religious scholars supported primarily by various forms of trading from cotton, gemstones to tea from Central Asia. However after World War I and the 1917 Revolution, the neighborhood fell into decline as overseas sources of income were cut off and residents were left with just their homes in Jerusalem. The Revolution also brought a flood of impoverished Russian Jewish refugees to the neighborhood(Ben-Arieh, Yehoshua (1979). עיר בראי תקופה: ירושלים החדשה בראשיתה [A City Reflected in its Times: New Jerusalem – The Beginnings] (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Publications. p. 253) & later Persian/Iranian Jews trigging problems with overcrowding(Housing in Jewish Palestine. Jewish Agency for Israel. 1938. p. 26).
The dire conditions continued even after World War 2 & Israel’s independence. So much so that it inspired the combined efforts and programs of Rabbi Bernard M. Casper, Prime Minister Menachem Begin's Project Renewal & organizer Moshe Kahan’s efforts that helped revitalize the community( https://m.jpost.com/local-israel/in-jerusalem/grace-under-fire). However here in the present most of the residents are Haredi Jews(https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/travel/2015-08-05/ty-article/moussaieff-synagogue-bukhara-in-jerusalem/0000017f-f61b-d318-afff-f77b6eb60000).
Before closing here are examples of notable Bukharan Jews:
Yvonne Green(1957-2024) English poet, translator, writer and barrister(https://yvonnegreenpoet.com)
Yoni Ben-Menachem(1957) Israeli journalist and a Senior Researcher at the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs (JCPA) since 2014. Prior to this position he was the General Director and Chief Editor of The Israel broadcasting Authority (IBA) from 2011 to 2014, who also is the first Israeli journalist to interview Yasser Arafat (https://arabexpert.co.il/en/about/).
Lev (Levi) Leviev (1956) Billionaire businessman, investor, philanthropist, president of the World Congress of Bukharian Jews(https://www.forbes.com/profile/lev-leviev/?sh=68ca46ba49e4)
Jacob Arabo (1965) American jewelry and watch designer who founded Jacob & Company and grew it into an international luxury brand(https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lifestyle/style/jacob-shows-newest-treasure-1106501/)
Avi Issacharoff (1973) an Israeli journalist, known for his focus on Palestinian affairs.He is a Middle East commentator for The Times of Israel and its sister news outlet Walla!, and the Palestinian and Arab Affairs Correspondent for Haaretz. Issacharoff is known as one of the creators of the TV-series Fauda(https://www.timesofisrael.com/writers/avi-issacharoff/).
And with that this is the end of my summary of the Bukharim/Bukharan Jewish Community’s story. I hope my attempt has encouraged your curiosity to learn more about them just like the earlier communities we’ve explored. Because I feel that I am only scratching the surface of their community’s story as well as the diversity of the Jewish community as a whole. As next time I’ll be diving into the story of the Jews of Kurdistan.
So for more materials & information concerning The Bukharan Jews please checkout the list of citations below.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukharan_Jews
“Bukharan Jews”
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara
“Emirate of Bukhara”
https://www.jewishlanguages.org/judeo-tajik
“Judeo-Tajik / Bukharian”
Golden, Peter B. (2011). Central Asia in World History. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 115
Ehrlich, M. Avrum, ed. (2009). "Caucasus and Central Asia". Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 1124. “Bukharan Jews spoke a dialect of Tajik referred to as Bukhori or Judeo-Tajik, which is still used by Bukharan Jews today.”
Zand, Michael (1989). "BUKHARA vii. Bukharan Jews". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume IV/5: Brick–Burial II. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 530–545.
Abraham N. Poliak, Uzbekistan, Encyclopedia Judaica, 2nd ed., 2007, volume 20 pp.447-448,447.
Ochildiev, D; R. Pinkhasov, I. Kalontarov. A History and Culture of the Bukharian Jews, Roshnoyi-Light, New York, 2007.
Cooper, Alanna (December 7, 2012). Bukharan Jews and the Dynamics of Global Judaism. Indiana University Press. p. 60
Dymshits, Valery; Zwolle, Waanders Uitgevers; Emelyanenko, Tatjana; Netherlands), Joods Historisch Museum (Amsterdam (1998). Facing West: Oriental Jews of Central Asia and the Caucasus. Antique Collectors Club Limited. p.13)
Goldberg, Harvey E. (1996). Sephardi and Middle Eastern Jewries: History and Culture in the Modern Era. Indiana University Press. p. 37-38
Loy, Thomas (2022). "Cross-border biographies: representations of the "Bukharan" Jewish self in changing cultural and political settings". Journal of Modern Jewish Studies. 22 (3): 4-5.
Shaked, Shaul; Netzar, Amnon (2003). איראנו-יודאיקה, כרך ה: לחקר פרס והיהדית [Irano-Judaica, Part V: Studies Relating to Jewish Contacts with Persian Culture Throughout the Ages]. מכון בן צבי לחקר קהילות ישראל במזרח. p. 199
Ben-Arieh, Yehoshua (1979). עיר בראי תקופה: ירושלים החדשה בראשיתה [A City Reflected in its Times: New Jerusalem – The Beginnings] (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Publications. p. 253
Housing in Jewish Palestine. Jewish Agency for Israel. 1938. p. 26
https://m.jpost.com/local-israel/in-jerusalem/grace-under-fire
“Grace under fire. This week marked 20 years to the passing of Rabbi Bernard Casper, who never stopped supporting Jerusalem.”
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukharan_Quarter
“Bukharan Quarter”
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dushanbe_Synagogue
“Dushanbe Synagogue”
https://www.rferl.org/a/New_Synagogue_Opens_In_Dushanbe/1621721.html
“New Synagogue Opens In Dushanbe”
Kark, Ruth; Oren-Nordheim, Michal (2001). Jerusalem and Its Environs: Quarters, Neighborhoods, Villages, 1800-1948. Israel studies in historical geography. Wayne State University Press. pp. 74, table on p.82–86 (see 84))
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-of-Tudela
“Benjamin of Tudela”
https://www.britannica.com/place/Samarkand-Uzbekistan
“Samarkand Uzbekistan”
“The Moussaieff Synagogue, a Relic of Bukhara in Jerusalem. Built in the early 19th century by a pillar of the Bukharan Jewish community, Moussaieff Synagogue even originally boasted a housing complex.”
https://dbs.anumuseum.org.il/skn/en/c6/e229348/Place/Bukhara
“The Jewish Community of Bukhara”
https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/who-are-the-bukharan-jews/
“Who Are the Bukharan Jews?”
https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/history/articles/history-jews-bukhara-central-asia
“A Brief History of the Jews of Bukhara and Central Asia: Our ‘History Detective’ columnist maps out the geographic and literary timeline of the Bukharan Jews”
https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/news/articles/among-the-last-jews-of-bukhara
“Among the Last Jews of Bukhara
A cemetery is one of the livelier attractions in what remains of Bukhara’s Jewish community”
https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/24/jews-bukhara-uzbekistanfear-community-will-fade-away
“Last Jews of Bukhara fear their community will fade away. The ancient Silk Road city once had a thriving Jewish population, which has shrunk to around 200”
https://www.vogue.com/article/meet-the-bukharian-women-of-rego-park
“The Queens of Queens: Meet the Bukharian Women of Rego Park”
https://forward.com/life/416764/a-walk-through-bukharian-queens-just-dont-call-it-russian/?amp=1
“A Walk Through Bukharian Queens — Just Don’t Call It ‘Russian’”
https://sephardicu.com/communities/the-bukharan-jews/
“The Bukharan Jews: Bukharan Jews: History, Communities Today, Culture, Religious Liturgy, Notable People and Accomplishments”
https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/bukharan-jews
“Virtual Jewish World: Bukharan Jews”
https://m.jpost.com/travel/travel-news/wandering-jew-bukhara-the-ancient-silk-way-city
“Wandering Jew: Bukhara, the ancient silk way city”
https://m.jpost.com/food-index/the-jewish-palate-the-bukharian-jews
“The Jewish Palate: The Bukharian Jews”
https://www.myjewishlearning.com/2020/04/06/bukharian-passover-traditions-and-recipes/
“Bukharian Passover Traditions and Recipes”
“This Bukharian Jewish Meaty Rice Dish is the Crockpot Meal You Need”
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine
“Bukharan Jewish cuisine”
Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Aboda Zara(Avodah Zarah)31b, and Rashi
Rybakov, Imanuel (2012). Easy Bukharian: Study Guide: Language of the Bukharian Jews. New York: The Association of the Bukharian Jewish Youth of the USA
Foner, Nancy. New immigrants in New York", Columbia University Press, 2001 p. 133
Cooper, Alanna E. (2003). "Looking Out for One's Own Identity: Central Asian Jews in the Wake of Communism". In Kosmin, Barry Alexander; Kovács, András (eds.). New Jewish Identities: Contemporary Europe and Beyond. Central European University Press. pp. 189–210
https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=humbiol_preprints
“No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews”
https://synagogues-360.anumuseum.org.il/gallery/tifereth-israel-2/
“Tifereth Israel”
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregation_Tifereth_Israel_(Queens)
“Congregation Tifereth Israel (Queens)”
“Congregation Tifereth Israel in Corona selected by New York Landmarks Conservancy for a $10K grant”
http://www1.cuny.edu/mu/podcasts/2010/05/10/saving-bukharian-jewish-history/
“Saving Bukharian Jewish History”
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/refusenik
“Refusenik”
https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Purge
“Great Purge”
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kippah
“Kippah”
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/yarmulke
“yarmulke”
https://jewish.shop/35351/what-is-yamaka/
“What Is Yamaka? why do Jews wear a kippah?”
https://jewishmuseum.org.uk/schools/asset/kippah/
“Kippah”
https://forward.com/news/4778/kippah-couture/
“Kippah Couture”
https://www.timesofisrael.com/what-a-kippa-really-tells-you-about-its-wearer/amp/
“What a kippa really tells you about its wearer. Pew recently released a kippa explainer on what the covering may say about the person donning it).
https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/kaftan/
“KAFTAN”
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaftan
“Kaftan”
https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/362845-0
“Bukharan man's outfit
https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/376672-0
“Attire of a Bukharan woman”
“When Jews wore burkas: An exhibit showcases unexpected Jewish fashion”
https://www.britannica.com/topic/jizya
“Jizyah/Jizya”
Rachel L. Goldenweiser. (2005). The Bukharian Jews through the Lenses of the 19th Century Russian Photographers. Iran & the Caucasus, 9(2), 257–272.(http://www.jstor.org/stable/4030956)
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dervish
“Dervish”
Meindorf (1975). The Travel from Orenburg to Bukhara. p. 96-97.
“Rift over root differences remains unmended for Uzbek Jews”
https://jweekly.com/2002/09/20/bukharan-jews-now-in-queens-recreate-their-sukkot-memories/
“Bukharan Jews now in Queens recreate their Sukkot memories”
Gitelman, Zvi (Apr 22, 2001). A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present. Indiana University Press. pp. 144–145.
Blady, Ken (2000). Jewish Communities in Exotic Places. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 185.
Eylon, Lili (2011). "Focus on Israel: Jerusalem: Architecture in the late Ottoman Period: The Bukharan Quarter". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs
https://bukhariancommunity.com/bukharian-food/
“Bukharian Food”
https://yvonnegreenpoet.com
“Yvonne Green”
https://arabexpert.co.il/en/about/
“Yoni Ben Menachem”
https://www.forbes.com/profile/lev-leviev/?sh=69b7363d49e4
“Lev Leviev”
https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lifestyle/style/jacob-shows-newest-treasure-1106501/
“Jacob & Co. Shows Off Its Newest Treasure. The jewelry house unearthed a find during the renovation of its New York flagship store.”
https://www.timesofisrael.com/writers/avi-issacharoff/
“Avi Issacharoff”
Gallery from left to right:
https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2007682864/
“Types of nationalities in the Turkestan krai. Jewish women. Mulka”
https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2007682871/
“Types of nationalities in the Turkestan krai. Jewish women. Rakhil”
Bukharan Jews celebrating Sukkot in Israel, ca. 1900.(Photo by: Sepia Times/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
https://www.loc.gov/resource/matpc.17805/?st=image
“Jewish market in Mea Shearim. Bukaran Quarter, Bukharan man selling vegetables”
https://www.loc.gov/item/2019708566/
“Bukharan Jewish washerwoman”
Caption: Bukharan Quarter. Two Elder Bukharan Jews In Jerusalem. By Brauner, Teddy.
Caption: A Bukharan dance performed by members of The Rina Nikova Ballet In The Citadel In Jerusalem. By Kluger Zoltan.
As usual for those of you on the go &/or just like audio & visuals: