Greetings once again & Chag Purim sameach! In today’s installment in the travels, I’ll be touching on an interesting aspect of Purim. The question around the identity of the Persian king, Ahasuerus within the story of Esther of the biblical book that shares its name with her.
First introduced in most translations in Esther 1:1: ”And it happened in the days of Ahasuerus, the Ahasuerus who reigned from India to Cush—over one hundred and twenty-seven provinces.“ Esther 1:1 LEB
The identity of this Persian King has been a subject of debate for years. That even some modern translations state that Ahasuerus is actually Xerxes I (the Great) within the text. For example: ”This is what happened in the days of Xerxes, who reigned over 127 provinces from India to Cush.“ Esther 1:1 BSB
While a large number of translations just keep it as Ahasuerus some do have it as Artaxerxes. Such as the older translation the Septuagint, Esther 1:2-3 reads: “2 in those days, when king Artaxerxes was on the throne in the city of Susa, 3 in the third year of his reign, he made a feast to his friends, and the other nations, and to the nobles of the Persians and Medes, and the chief of the satraps.”
(Should be noted that the Septuagint version differs slightly, but that is a topic for another time)
Another example of Artaxerxes being seen as the one is in the foot notes of the Geneva Bible 1560 edition.
There are other examples, some of which will be highlighted further down, but we generally see that there has not been a consistent pick between Xerxes and his 3rd son & successor Artaxerxes. Before we go into the preferences or the claims of why it’s one King or the other let’s do a little background history on both on them.
Xerxes the Great:
Xerxes I( c519-465 BCE) was the son of Achaemenid Persian Empire’s Shahanshah or King of Kings, Darius the Great & his wife Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire. Who famously feed the Jews of the Babylonian captivity & encouraged the rebuilding of the temple. However Xerxes I is most famously known from the Greco-Persian wars or more specifically leading the 2nd Persian invasion of Greece(https://www.britannica.com/biography/Xerxes-I).
Artaxerxes I:
Artaxerxes I(???-424BCE) the 5th Persian Shahanshah or King of Kings from 465–424 BCE. Was the third son of Xerxes I & Amestris, who succeeded to his father’s throne after the assassinations of his father Xerxes I & his older brother Darius. Artaxerxes had put down a Egyptian revolt(460–454 BCE) and had given the famous Athenian general of the Battle of Salamis, Themistocles asylum, after he was ostracized by his home of Athens(https://www.britannica.com/biography/Artaxerxes-I). Also from Greek & Latin sources Artaxerxes had the surname Long-handed(Macrocheir in Greek) or Longimanus. Due to it being alleged that his right hand being longer than his left(Plutarch, Artaxerxes, l. 1. c. 1. 11:129 - cited by Ussher, Annals, para. 1179).
For more about both of these intriguing Persian Kings of the Achaemenid Persian Empire please check out the materials listed below in the citations.
Now let us move into exploring which one King Ahasuerus is in reference to. Beginning with Xerxes the Great.
Ahasuerus as Xerxes I:
Most modern scholars tend to identify Ahasuerus with Xerxes I, as did 19th-century Bible commentaries(Kalimi, Isaac (2023). The Book of Esther between Judaism and Christianity. Cambridge University Press. p. 99).
Generally there’s 3 reasons why Xerxes I is seen as Ahasuerus. Etymology, Herodotus, & Persian archives that mention a possible court official whose name maybe tied to Esther’s relative(cousin or uncle) & guardian Mordecai/Mordechai(Yamauchi, Edwin (April 1992). "Mordecai, the Persepolis Tablets, and the Susa Excavations". Vetus Testamentum. 42 (2): 272-275).
Let’s begin with the possibility of Mordecai being seen in texts known as Persepolis Administrative Archives(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives). As Mordecai is an Hebrew derivative from Marduk. As there are at least four people in the Persian archives with the name Marduka or Marduku that were court officials. Generally between Darius I to Xerxes, Artaxerxes I & more(Howard, David M. Jr. (2007). An Introduction to the Old Testament Historical Books. Moody Publishers. p369 & Kalimi, Isaac (2023). The Book of Esther between Judaism and Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp 111-112).
The underlying issue with this potential evidence is that you have at least 4 individuals being attested to and really nothing more to separate them from each other and other material that would help identify their ethnic background in some way. Or it might be better to say if there is more materials that would help narrow those options down, then these texts from the archives would be even better for the Ahasuerus is Xerxes I camp.
Next let’s look at Etymology.
The name of Xerxes' is actually the Greek version of the old Persian Xšaya-ṛšā, the New/Modern Persian `Khshayarsa' (or Khashyar Shah), and so he is known in the west as `Xerxes' but in the east as `Khshayarsa'(Mark, Joshua J.. "Xerxes I." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 14 Mar 2018. Web. 19 Mar 2024. & https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_(name)). As the name’s generally meaning is “ruling over heroes(R. G. Kent, Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon, 2nd ed., New Haven, 1953).”
Meanwhile Artaxerxes is rooted in the Old Persian Artaxšaçā or Ṛtaxšaca that had been influenced by Xšayārša, Xerxes name. As its meaning becomes “whose reign is through truth” instead(https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artaxerxes-throne-name-of-several-persian-kings-of-the-achaemenid-dynasty & Ghias Abadi, R. M. (2004). Achaemenid Inscriptions (کتیبههای هخامنشی) (in Persian) (2nd ed.). Tehran: Shiraz Navid Publications. p. 129).
So how did we get Ahasuerus thru Hebrew to Xerxes. The Hebrew in question is אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ: Achashverosh/Akhashverósh which is supposed to be a transliteration of the Old Persian for Xšayāršā of which Xerxes is derived. That it is supposed to convey the meaning of “ruling over heroes, men &/or kings”. Which is interesting considering that the Persian title of King of Kings is Shahanshah, which is Middle Persian, that descends from the older Persian Xšāyaθiya, Xšāyaθiyānām(An introduction to Old Persian (p. 149). Prods Oktor Skjærvø. Harvard University. 2003. & Old Persian. Appendices, Glossaries, Indices & Transcriptions. Prods Oktor Skjærvø. Harvard University. 2003.)
While looking carefully there is some similarity between Xšāyaθiya & Xšayārša, Xerxes name. As they both contain the component for “rule” or “king”. Which you could ask if the Hebrew Achashverosh/Akhashverósh is referring to Xšāyaθiya & Xšāyaθiyānām, which gives us the modern Shahanshah. Which would make Ahasuerus a title not a name.
There’s another piece of evidence that shows this as a possible train of thought. In the Midrash Esther Rabbah 1:3: “אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ רַבִּי לֵוִי וְרַבָּנָן, רַבִּי לֵוִי אָמַר אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ הוּא אַרְתַּחְשַׁשְׂתָּא. וְרַבָּנָן אָמְרֵי אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ, שֶׁכָּל מִי שֶׁזּוֹכְרוֹ חוֹשֵׁשׁ אֶת רֹאשׁוֹ. לָמָּה קְרָאוֹ הַכָּתוּב אַרְתַּחְשַׁשְׂתָּא, שֶׁהָיָה מַרְתִּיחַ וְתָשׁ. אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ, רַבִּי יִצְחָק וְרַבָּנִין, רַבִּי יִצְחָק אָמַר אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ שֶׁבָּאוּ כָּל הַצָּרוֹת בְּיָמָיו, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: אֵבֶל גָּדוֹל לַיְּהוּדִים. הוּא אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ, שֶׁבָּאוּ כָּל הַטּוֹבוֹת בְּיָמָיו, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: שִׂמְחָה וְשָׂשׂוֹן לַיְּהוּדִים מִשְׁתֶּה וְיוֹם טוֹב. רַבָּנָן אָמְרֵי אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ עַד שֶׁלֹא נִכְנְסָה אֶסְתֵּר אֶצְלוֹ, הוּא אֲחַשְׁוֵרוֹשׁ, מִשֶּׁנִּכְנְסָה אֶסְתֵּר אֶצְלוֹ לֹא הָיָה בּוֹעֵל נִדּוֹת.
“It was during the days of Aḥashverosh…” Rabbi Levi and the Rabbis, Rabbi Levi said: Aḥashverosh is Artaḥshasta. The Rabbis say: [He was called] Aḥashverosh, since anyone who remembers him, his head hurts [ḥoshesh et rosho]. Why did Scripture call him Artaḥshasta? It is because he would anger [martiaḥ] and exhaust [vetash] [others]. Aḥashverosh – Rabbi Yitzḥak and the Rabbis, Rabbi Yitzḥak said: “Aḥashverosh” – as all the troubles came during his days, as it is stated: “there was great mourning among the Jews” (Esther 4:3). “That is Aḥashverosh” – as all the good came during his days, as it is stated: “Joy and gladness for the Jews, a banquet and a holiday” (Esther 8:17). The Rabbis say: “Aḥashverosh” – before Esther came before him; “that is Aḥashverosh” – after Esther came before him, he would no longer copulate with menstruants(https://www.sefaria.org/Esther_Rabbah.1.3?lang=bi).”
With in the text “Artaḥshasta” is Artaxerxes & Aḥashverosh is being used in reference to him. This wouldn’t be the only text that identifies Artaxerxes with Ahasuerus as we will see further down. For now let’s look at quite possibly the biggest influence on the Ahasuerus is Xerxes camp, Herodotus.
The Greek historian Herodotus, and his work the “Histories”(http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.html), which includes his takes upon the Persians and Xerxes that are included by some in their claim that Ahasuerus was Xerxes the Great. Mainly comparing Herodotus’s descriptions of Xerxes’s personality with how Ahasuerus is portrayed in Esther.
For example Herodotus’s take on Xerxes hosting what’s essentially a council after putting down the Egyptian rebellion in the wake of his accession to the throne after the death of Xerxes’s father, Darius I. Being compared with the gathering in the opening of Esther 1:2-5.
“After the conquest of Egypt, intending now to take in hand the expedition against Athens, Xerxes held a special assembly of the noblest among the Persians, so he could learn their opinions and declare his will before them all. When they were assembled, Xerxes spoke to them as follows:(Histories VII.8 https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0016,001:7:8 ).
”In those days when King Ahasuerus sat on his royal throne in the citadel of Susa, in the third year of his reign, he gave a banquet for all his officials and ministers. The army of Persia and Media, the nobles, and the governors of the provinces were present, while he displayed the great wealth of his kingdom and the splendor and pomp of his majesty for many days, one hundred eighty days in all. When these days were completed, the king gave for all the people present in the citadel of Susa, both great and small, a banquet lasting for seven days, in the court of the garden of the king’s palace.“ Esther 1:2-5 NRSVUE
The problem with this comparison is that Herodotus not only doesn’t give the location but within this passage & the upcoming ones it’s evident that this meeting(concerning invading Greece) is nothing like the 187 day celebration depicted In Esther 1:2-5(or the whole chapter). Also it should be noted that Xerxes started his reign in 486 BCE( Boardman, John (1988). The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. V. Cambridge University Press. p. 509)& stop the Egyptian revolt in the beginning of 484 BCE(Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire p. 525) Meaning he hadn’t reign a full two years yet, much less the “3rd year” that Esther 1: 2-5 is being seen as the comparison(Kalimi, Isaac (2023). The Book of Esther between Judaism and Christianity. Cambridge University Press. p. 99).
The next example is the claim of Xerxes when it comes to becoming enamored with women. First Herodotus’s account:
“Now it happened that the king had been at Sardis ever since he came there in flight from Athens after his overthrow in the sea-fight. Being then at Sardis he became enamored of Masistes' wife, who was also there. But as all his messages could not bring her to yield to him, and he would not force her to his will, out of regard for his brother Masistes (which indeed counted with the woman also, for she knew well that no force would be used against her), Xerxes found no other way to accomplish his purpose than that he should make a marriage between his own son Darius and the daughter of this woman and Masistes, for he thought that by doing so he would be most likely to win her. [2] So he betrothed them with all due ceremony and rode away to Susa. But when he had come and had taken Darius' bride into his house, he thought no more of Masistes' wife, but changed his mind and wooed and won this girl Artaynte, Darius' wife and Masistes' daughter(Histories IX.108 https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.%209.108&lang=original)”
Now the parts of Esther used in support: ””On the seventh day, when the king was merry with wine, he commanded Mehuman, Biztha, Harbona, Bigtha and Abagtha, Zethar and Carkas, the seven eunuchs who attended him, to bring Queen Vashti before the king wearing the royal crown, in order to show the peoples and the officials her beauty, for she was fair to behold. But Queen Vashti refused to come at the king’s command conveyed by the eunuchs. At this the king was enraged, and his anger burned within him. Then the king consulted the sages who knew the laws (for this was the king’s procedure toward all who were versed in law and custom, and those next to him were Carshena, Shethar, Admatha, Tarshish, Meres, Marsena, and Memucan, the seven officials of Persia and Media who had access to the king and sat first in the kingdom): “According to the law, what is to be done with Queen Vashti because she has not performed the command of King Ahasuerus conveyed by the eunuchs?”Esther 1:10-15 NRSVUE
&
When Esther was taken to King Ahasuerus in his royal palace in the tenth month, which is the month of Tebeth, in the seventh year of his reign, the king loved Esther more than all the other women; of all the virgins she won his favor and devotion, so that he set the royal crown on her head and made her queen instead of Vashti. Then the king gave a great banquet to all his officials and ministers: “Esther’s banquet.” He also granted a holiday to the provinces and gave gifts with royal liberality.“ Esther 2:16-18 NRSVUE
It is due to the passages from Herodotus’s Histories IX.108-113 being used in tandem with Esther 1:10-15 & 2:16-18 to support Herodotus’s portrayal of Xerxes when it comes to women, which are in turn used to claim that Ahasuerus is Xerxes I. However it should be noted that Herodotus can be unreliable at times(Radner, Karen (2013). "Assyria and the Medes". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford University Press. p.454) & as French Iranologist(study of Iranian peoples), Pierre Briant, notes Herodotus as presenting a stereotyped and biased portrayal of the Persians(Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire pp 158, 516). This becomes more problematic when factoring in the vilification Xerxes under went courtesy of Alexander the Great(Stoneman, Richard (2015). Xerxes: A Persian Life. Yale University Press. p.2).
Ahasuerus & Artaxerxes I:
What is interesting is that prior to the 19th century, there has been a long history of Artaxerxes I being identified with Ahasuerus. Like the image of the footnote above from the 1560 edition of the Geneva Bible, the Septuagint mentioned above, the aforementioned Midrash of Esther Rabbah 1:3, then there’s the Josippon or Sefer Yosipon( a 10th century Jewish chronicle comprising Jewish history from Adam to Titus, named after Flavius Josephus, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/josippon).
However one of the most straightforward examples of stating Artaxerxes I was Ahasuerus was 1st century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus.
“1. [About An. 457.] After the death of Xerxes, the Kingdom came to be transferred to his son Cyrus; whom the Greeks called Artaxerxes. When this man had obtained the government over the Persians, the whole nation of the Jews, (18) with their wives and children, were in danger of perishing; the occasion whereof we shall declare in a little time. For it is proper in the first place to explain somewhat relating to this King; and how he came to marry a Jewish wife; who was her self of the royal family also: and who is related to have saved our nation(Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews — Book XI: Chapter 6).”
What is interesting here is that Josephus states that Artaxerxes is a name the Greeks knew him as, & Cyrus was his original. This could be an error of some sort. It’s possible that Cyrus, is Artaxerxes personal name, before he became king, as the name Artaxerxes itself is a name that means: “whose reign is through truth”. Thus a regal name instead of personal. But due to the lack of evidence it’s doubtful. However it should be noted that among some of his successors. Such as his grandson Artaxerxes II, who was known to be born as Arses/Arsaces or Aršak/Arshaka(https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artaxerxes-ii-achaemenid-king & https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artaxerxes_II) & his son Artaxerxes III, who was originally born Ochus(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artaxerxes_III).
So it is within the possibility that something similar happened with Artaxerxes I, whether Cyrus was a birth name or an affectionate nickname given by someone close to him in his family. However only further substantial evidence can confirm this one way or another.
But as for his father being Ahasuerus from the story of Esther, it’s looking to be unlikely. Especially when you factor in that the Persian Royalty only married amongst a restricted number of Persian noble families(Littman, Robert J. (1975). "The Religious Policy of Xerxes and the "Book of Esther"". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 65 (3): 146).
That is not to say a lower status Queen & mistresses from other backgrounds couldn’t have existed. As polygamy, or having multiple wives was practiced. As Artaxerxes I for example had at least 6-7 wives. So in the likelihood of Esther being confirmed as a historical figure, I wouldn’t be surprised if she was cared for but was actually an somewhat obscure figure in the view of the wider Persian society of the time.
However as for the identity of Ahasuerus, for this point in time I’m leaning towards Ahasuerus being a variation of the title that would be known as Shahanshah, or “King of Kings”, & that given the historical tradition concerning the story of Esther, Artaxerxes I was more likely to be the one who the story was referring to.
In the end I will say this with the full intention that new information could arise that could quite possibly shape my views in one way or another. Because history, especially the archaeological side of it, is a very fickle but fascinating mistress.
Well until next time as I have stated before in these travels of my religious/spiritual life it has taught me to:
When you hear someone make a statement concerning a scripture matter,person &/or situation. Check behind them, don’t just accept it.
When looking over materials don’t focus on what’s there. Cross reference & look around to see for consistency &/consensus.
& if culture of a group of people are involved, look to see if such claims or statements line up together with or run afoul of said culture’s traditions & lore especially during certain periods in time.
Here are a list of citations/sources:
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahasuerus
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I
“Xerxes I”
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Xerxes-I
“Xerxes I”
https://www.britannica.com/summary/Xerxes-I
“Xerxes I summary”
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543949
“Jar with the name of Xerxes the Great in four languages”
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artaxerxes_I
“Artaxerxes I”
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Artaxerxes-I
“Artaxerxes I”
Plutarch, Artaxerxes, l. 1. c. 1. 11:129 - cited by Ussher, Annals, para. 1179
Yamauchi, Edwin (April 1992). "Mordecai, the Persepolis Tablets, and the Susa Excavations". Vetus Testamentum. 42 (2): 272-275
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives
“Persepolis Administrative Archives”
Howard, David M. Jr. (2007). An Introduction to the Old Testament Historical Books. Moody Publishers. p369
Kalimi, Isaac (2023). The Book of Esther between Judaism and Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp 111-112
Mark, Joshua J.. "Xerxes I." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 14 Mar 2018. Web. 19 Mar 2024.
R. G. Kent, Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon, 2nd ed., New Haven, 1953.
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xerxes-1-name
“XERXES i. The Name”
“ARTAXERXES”
Ghias Abadi, R. M. (2004). Achaemenid Inscriptions (کتیبههای هخامنشی) (in Persian) (2nd ed.). Tehran: Shiraz Navid Publications. p. 129.
An introduction to Old Persian (p. 149). Prods Oktor Skjærvø. Harvard University. 2003.
Old Persian. Appendices, Glossaries, Indices & Transcriptions. Prods Oktor Skjærvø. Harvard University. 2003.
https://www.sefaria.org/Esther_Rabbah.1.3?lang=bi
“Esther Rabbah 1:3”
http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.html
“Herodotus’s Histories”
https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0016,001:7:8
“Histories VII.8”
https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.%209.108&lang=original
“Histories IX.108”
Boardman, John (1988). The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. V. Cambridge University Press. p. 509.
Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire p. 525
Radner, Karen (2013). "Assyria and the Medes". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford University Press. p.454
https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/josippon
“Josippon”
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews — Book XI: Chapter 6
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artaxerxes-ii-achaemenid-king
“Artaxerxes II”
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artaxerxes_II
“Artaxerxes II”
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artaxerxes_III
“Artaxerxes III”
For those who like the visuals:
& a song:
Image in the thumbnail is of Esther and Mordechai from the 3rd Century site of the Dura-Europos synagogue in modern Syria.
Until next time good day(or night), be kind, smile & peace be with you.
Also Chag Purim sameach! Happy Purim!